Review of Literature Essay Example for Free

Review of Literature Essay 2.1Introduction This chapter reviewed the available literatures written on this topic and in other related areas in this chapter. This was made possible by the identification, collection and review of these literatures from various sources such as text books, journals, reports and the internet. 2.2The Concept of ATM ATM is typically made up of the CPU for controlling the user interface and transaction devices, magnetic or Chip card reader for identifying the customer, display which is used by the customer for performing the transaction, function buttons usually close to the display or a Touch screen used to select the various aspects of the transaction and a record printer which provides the customer with a record of a transaction (Cronin and Mary, 1997). Most ATMs are connected to inter bank networks, enabling people to withdraw and deposit money from machines not belonging to the bank where they have their account or in the country where their accounts are held thus enabling cash withdrawals in local currency (Maxwell, 1990). They are often identified by signs above them indicating the name of the bank owning them. 2.2.1Evolution of ATM ATM is said to have evolved from early cash dispenser and is said to have first been introduced in the early 1970’s. The dispensers were operated by a token inform of a punch card. This enables a customer to withdraw as sachets of suitable values of bank notes. These sachets processes and then return the card to the customers. Another source has it that ATM concept was started around 1967, and that it was first installed in Endfield town, on the London Borough of Endfield by Barclays Bank. Thomas (1996). This is said to have been accredited to John Shepherded Baron, although George Simon registered patent in New York and Don Wetzel and two other Engineers from Docatel Company also registered patent in June/ April 1973. Brendan (1996). This in the second generation was improved to the extent that made it possible to count proved money. 2.2.2Operation of ATM ATMs typically connect directly to their ATM Controller via either a dial-up modem over a telephone line or directly via a leased line. Leased lines are preferable because they require less time to establish a connection. Musiime and Biyaki, (2010). It is observed that, most modern ATMs, the customer is identified by inserting a plastic ATM card with a magnetic stripe or a plastic smartcard with a chip that contains a unique card number. Security is provided by the customer entering a personal identification number (PIN). For one to access ATM service, he/ she (the card holder) has to insert the card (magnetic strip card) into the machine (ATM), which then reads the strip and makes contact with the central computer to confirm the genuity of the card which is either accepted rejected depending on whether it is valid or not. When accepted, the customer then punches his/ her PIN number which is then verified according to its compatibility with the information stored in the card. After w hich it then perform the service requested of like (issuing cash, accepting cash/ cheque deposit, balance enquiry, mini-statement) etc, and finally ejects the card. 2.3Effectiveness of ATM Without usage of technology the banking sector cannot provide customers with effective services (Patricio et al., 2003). Effective service delivery is a new or significantly improved service concept that is taken into practice (Drake, 2001). Customer expectations concerning service encounter experiences and service delivery mechanisms as well as the entire concept of what constitutes quality service are therefore key issues that need to be considered prior to the implementation of any structural change. Patricio et al. (2003). Effective service delivery is a service product or service process that is based on some technology or systematic method. It can be a new customer interaction channel, a distribution system or a technological concept or a combination of them. (Kelley et al. 1990). Kumbhar (2011). Observed that effectiveness of service provision have a significant relationship with overall customer satisfaction. Effective service delivery is positively related to customer satisf action in that, when a customer perceives that the delivery mode of the transactions that the bank is supposed to offer is quite good, the more the customers will be satisfied with the bank services. The Concept of Customer Satisfaction Cacioppo (2000) defines Customer satisfaction as the state of mind that customers have about a company when their expectations have been met or exceeded over the lifetime of the product or service as quoted by MALCOLM (2008). Increased customer expectations have created a competitive climate whereby the quality of the relationship between the customer and bank has taken on a greater significance in some cases than the product itself. (Musiime and Biyaki, 2010). Krishnan et al (1999). Point out that, the banking industry strives to succeed by putting the topic of rapid and changing customers needs to their agenda. This can be achieved through good customer care and offering attractive services or products that other competitors may not offer. Therefore, customer satisfaction is seen as a key performance indicator within business. The concept of customer satisfaction occupies a central position in marketing and practice (Cardozo, 1965). Customer satisfaction is a person’s feelings of pleasure or disappointment resulting from comparing a product’s perceived performance or outcome in relation to his or her expectations. (Musiime and Biyaki, 2010). In summary, Customer Satisfaction is the actual meeting of customer’s expectation after he or she has completed consuming a product or service. 2.4.1 Who is a Customer A customer is the most important visitor on our premises. He is not dependent on us. He is not an interruption to our work. He is the purpose for it. He is not an outsider on our business rather he is part of it, we are not doing him favor by serving him rather he is doing us favor by giving us an opportunity to do so. Wasswa, (2003). Pg 35. He further described a customer as one that enables the organization exists. They are the purpose of our business. In my own view, I believe that, customers are the heart, the life and the soul of our businesses, without whom we can’t hold even for a second to exist in business. Hence they should be accorded utmost respect and care when rendering service to them. 2.4.2Importance of Customer satisfaction Khirallah (2005) defines customer satisfaction as; a customers perception that his or her needs, wishes, expectations, or desires with regard to products and service have been fulfilled. Consumer satisfaction in short can therefore be defined as an evaluative process that contrasts pre-purchase expectations with the actual perceptions of performance during and after consumption experience. In summary, Customer Satisfaction is the meeting or even exceeding of a customer’s expectation after the use product. The outcomes of satisfying a customer are:- Customer loyalty- LOYAL customers are those who have the enthusiasm about the brands or products they use. The more enthusiastic a customer is, the higher the profit contributed to the brand. (MALCOLM 2008). Musiime and Biyaki,(2010). Loyalty is a combination of intentional repurchase behavior and psychological attachments of a customer to a particular service provider. The fundamental assumption of all the loyalty models is that ke eping existing customers is less expensive than acquiring new ones. In summary, Loyalty is customer’s demonstration of faithful adherence to an institution despite the occasional errors. Thus satisfying a customer is very paramount to organizations existence. Customer retention- Customer Retention is the ability to hold on to customers over time. Joseph and Stone (2003). Customer retention is the activity that the selling organization undertakes to reduce customer account defections. It can also be described as a series of actions that the selling organization undertakes to reduce defections. Musiime and Biyaki, (2010). Ganesh et al., (2000)., observed that, long-term, customers become less costly to serve due to the bank’s greater knowledge of the existing customer and to decrease serving costs. They also tend to be less sensitive to comparative marketing activities (Czepiel, 1990). Loosing customers not only leads to opportunity costs because the reduced sales, but also to an increased need for attracting new customers which is five to six times more expensive than customer retention (Joseph and Stone, 2003). 2.4.3The relationship between ATM use and Customer satisfaction Earlier research by Brownlie (1989) has recommended that some consumers have positive attitudes towards ATMs based on dominant perceptions of convenience/accessibility/ease of use. As observed by Malcolm (2008). On the other hand, Reichheld and Sasser (1990) have recognized the benefits that customer satisfaction delivers to a bank. For instance, the longer a customer stays with a bank the more utility the customer generates. This is a result of a number of factors relating to the time the customer spends with a bank. Without usage of technology the banking sector cannot provide customers with a satisfactory service (Patricio et al., 2003). Effective service delivery is a new or significantly improved service concept that is taken into practice. Musiime and Biyaki,(2010). According to, Patricio et al. (2003) customers will use different service delivery systems dependent on their assessment of each channel and how it contributes to the overall service offering. Hence service satisfaction will not merely be based on isolated service encounters and experiences but rather on the overall feelings of satisfaction. With automated teller machines networks already in place in most of the urban areas, the drive is now focused towards the rural areas where the use of automated teller machines is still uncommon. Musiime and Biyaki,(2010). 2.5Conclusion From the review of literature, it can be observed that the operation and use of ATM services in the financial sector, has contributed a lot in changing the way in which financial services and products are being delivered to the banks clients. As the say goes that, for every step forward (development), a lot of challenges must have been faced, fought and overcome. Thus the development of ATM saw the emergency of some challenges for the industry as customers keep demanding for better service, while the financial institutions are very busy searching for the most efficient way by which they can improve on their service provision.

Timed Efficient Stream Loss-Tolerant Authentication (TESLA)

Timed Efficient Stream Loss-Tolerant Authentication (TESLA) When considered as a security solution for ADS-B, asymmetric-key encryption has two major drawbacks. The first issue is that current asymmetric-key schemes have no compact encryption implementations, and would result in an increase of the transmitted ADS-B message length. The second problem is that unique encrypted ADS-B messages would be required for each recipient. To maintain a fully-connected network of n nodes would necessitate (n2 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ n) unique broadcasts rather than n in the current system [15], which obviously does not scale well as the size of the network increases. As a possible answer to these two drawbacks, Costin et al. [3] have suggested what they term a lightweight PKI solution. In the lightweight PKI approach, node A transmits its digital signature over n messages, so that after every n messages, the surrounding nodes have received As digital signature. The recipients keep the messages until the entire digital signature has been transmitted and they can authenticate the buffered messages. The authors suggest that the PKI key distribution necessary for this scheme could be done during an aircrafts scheduled maintenance cycle [13]. A security scheme called Timed Efficient Stream Loss-Tolerant Authentication (TESLA) is a variation on traditional asymmetric cryptography that has been proposed for use on broadcast networks [19], [20]. With TESLA, senders retroactively publish their keys which are then used by receivers to authenticate the broadcast messages. A broadcasting node produces an encrypted message authentication code (MAC) which is included with every message. After a designated time interval or number of messages, the key to decrypt the senders MAC is published. Listening receivers who have buffered the senders previous messages can then decrypt the messages that were broadcast. When applied to ADS-B, this technique imposes a time delay on the broadcast due to the need to buffer messages, but it provides integrity and continuity of messages sent over the network. TESLA is an adaption of the TESLA protocol designed for use on wireless sensor networks. The TESLA protocol requires nodes in the network to be loosely time synchronized, with each node having an upper bound on the maximum clock synchronization error. As discussed earlier, asymmetric encryption schemes have high computation and communication overhead, which limit their usefulness as security approaches on the bandwidth-constrained ADS-B network. The TESLA protocol overcomes this problem by employing asymmetric-key encryption through a delayed disclosure of symmetric keys, which results in an efficient broadcast authentication scheme. When one considers the bandwidth and interference limitations on the ADS-B frequency channel, the TESLA design adaptations identify this protocol as a viable scheme for providing security in ADS-B. However, there are two obstacles to applying TESLA to ADS-B. The primary issue is that, while sufficiently good time synchronization could be provided via GPS, it would require modification to the protocol to accommodate the GPS timestamp field. The second problem is that in order for TESLA to be used for verifying the identity of a network node, it needs to be reinitialized which leaves it susceptible to memory- based DoS attacks. In spite of these drawbacks, TESLA is a promising security scheme for integrating into ADS-B. B. Aircraft Address Message Authentication Code The cryptographic solutions PKI and TESLA both have shortcomings in that they require modifications to the current ADS-B protocol. The Aircraft Address Message Authentication Code (AA-MAC) security solution utilizes a standard hash algorithm such as MD5 or SHA and a secret authentication key to perform message integrity [21]. The AA-MAC message source integrity scheme would require a slight modification to the existing protocol in that it would replace the current Aircraft Address (AA) field with the MAC, but the ADS-B message is otherwise unchanged. The AA-MAC approach proposes a different aircraft identification strategy, assigning a unique identifier to each aircraft that is good for the duration of a particular flight. As with PKI cryptographic approaches, the distribution of the secret key presents challenges for AA-MAC. Since MAC requires just one key which is used to uniquely identify a sender on the network, the simplest approach would be to distribute the secret key only whe n an aircraft intends to enter the air traffic control system and ADS-B network. The purpose here is to demonstrate a compatible security scheme that will mitigate threats posed by message injection and modification attacks, which are among the most critical vulnerabilities in the current ADS-B implementation. While AA-MAC does not provide data integrity, it is highly compatible with the existing 1090ES protocol and can be implemented at low cost relative to other security proposals, offering a feasible partial security solution for ADS-B. 4.1.2. Non-Cryptographic Schemes As we have seen, cryptographic security schemes are difficult to implement in a way that are not compatible with the existing infrastructure, primarily due to the problem of key distribution and management. Non-cryptographic approaches to network security avoid the challenge of key management and instead involve either some form of fingerprinting on the physical layer, or a frequency modulation scheme such as spread spectrum. A. Fingerprinting Schemes such as fingerprinting encompass various methods for authentication and identification, either based on hardware or software imperfections or characteristics of the frequency channel which are hard to replicate. Identifying signatures for legitimate nodes on the network provides data useful for the implementation of systems to detect network intrusions [22]. Software-Based Fingerprinting schemes attempt to isolate distinct characteristics of the software operating on network equipment. The development teams for different network equipment manufacturers often take widely varied paths when implementing software on a given device. These differences can be cataloged and later exploited to tell apart dissimilar network devices, and can be used to verify their continuity up to a certain degree. Hardware-Based Fingerprinting approaches seek to identify and catalog unique network hardware differences. Some of these differences can be used for radiometric fingerprinting, which takes advantage of differences in the modulation of a radio signal to catalog unique device signatures. Clock skew is another identifiable hardware feature that can be used to establish uniqueness between wireless devices. Since no two clocks are perfectly synchronized, time difference can be used to create signatures and enable identification. A third category of fingerprinting is Channel/Location-Based Fingerprinting. This fingerprinting method tries to exploit natural characteristics of the communications channel. Various approaches utilizing received signal strength (RSS), channel impulse response (CIR) and the carrier phase have shown that this can be a viable alternative to more traditional authentication and verification measures.

Investing strategies by age Essay -- essays research papers

Investing Strategies Pre-Career (16-25) – During this investment period in my life my goal is to have safety of principal while still receiving income. This is a very low risk portfolio strategy. Income will most likely be low because I will hopefully be enrolled in a post secondary education and graduate school. During this time I will be taking very minimal risks by investing in securities such as; T-bills, Canada, government and corporate bonds, stalwarts (blue chips), preferred shares, and possibly two or three small cap stocks in order to diversify my portfolio as well as incorporate some risk into it as well. Blue-chip stocks are very reliable and low risk because they are large companies with millions of assets and a great investment for this stage of my life. Early Years (25-35) – This time in my life will hopefully be one where I am able to spend a proportion of my income on investing in order to grow my portfolio. Hopefully at this point of my life I will have a high paying job after graduate school and will have income to spend. Although cash would be tight when attempting to raise and support a family, the portfolio must be balanced as well. Therefore, having money equally spread out between bonds, blue-chip stocks, and small caps would be the best scenario to grow my portfolio as well as keeping the risk at moderate degree. I would focus on all five types of stocks that I have previously researched; yet I will still have less money in speculative and potential turnaround because the risk is quite high. Establishment Year (35-55) – This is a very important investing stage in my life because I will have the money to be able to invest freely as well as be quite aggressive in the way I invest. The securities that I will most likely invest in are moderate to high-risk securities that can profit in high return. Investing in a few specified bonds for my possible child’s education and for safety of principle. As well as some blue-chip stocks, and mainly higher risk stocks such as cyclical, speculative and potential turnaround. These stocks are the best for growing my portfolio, although they do pose a high risk, at this point in my life I will be able to afford the loss. The key to this time in my life is to use risk to my advantage and be able to receive capital gain and dividends. Pre-Retirement Years (55-65) – This time period in my life will be mu... ...s on the economy. When the economy is doing well, the risk is low and visa-versa. AlarmForce – The AlarmForce Company is a growth stock because of the constant growth that it has had over past years. The best stage to invest in this stock would be when you have a relatively moderate-low risk investment portfolio. This is because the growth stock usually rises at a slower pace but continues to rise, therefore the best period to invest in this stock would be during the early years and the pre-retirement years because there is growth needed, but the risk level is moderate-low. Dimethaid Corporation – The speculative stock that I researched was Dimethaid, which is a drug creator and fabricator. This is one of the riskiest stocks that I researched because of their unstable history and their fluctuating stock prices. The time that I would choose to purchase this investment would definitely only be during the establishment years. This is because it is the only time when I will have freedom to invest in companies and I will have a much higher risk tolerance. Because the stock is high risk, this is the only reasonable investing period where I can afford the loss of the original investment

The Effective Satire of Voltaires Candide :: Voltaire Candide Essays

The Effective Satire of Voltaire's Candide      Ã‚   In Candide, Voltaire sought to point out the fallacy of Gottfried Leibniz's theory of optimism and the hardships brought on by the resulting inaction toward the evils of the world. Voltaire's use of satire, and its techniques of exaggeration and contrast highlight the evil and brutality of war and the world in general when men are meekly accepting of their fate. Leibniz, a German philosopher and mathematician of Voltaire's time, developed the idea that the world they were living in at that time was "the best of all possible worlds." This systematic optimism shown by Leibniz is the philosophical system that believed everything already was for the best, no matter how terrible it seemed. In this satire, Voltaire showed the world full of natural disasters and brutality. Voltaire also used contrast in the personalities of the characters to convey the message that Leibniz's philosophy should not be dealt with any seriousness. Leibniz, sometimes regarded as a Stoic or Fatalist because his philosophies were based on the idea that everything in the world was determined by fate, theorized that God, having the ability to pick from an infinite number of worlds, chose this world, "the best of all possible worlds." Although Voltaire chose that simple quality of Leibniz's philosophy to satirize, Leibniz meant a little more than just that. Even though his p hilosophy stated that God chose "the best of all possible worlds," he also meant that God, being the perfection he is, chose the best world available to him, unfortunately it was a world containing evil. It seems as though Voltaire wanted to ridicule Leibniz's philosophy so much that he chose to satirize only the literal meaning and fatal acceptance of evil of Leibniz's philosophy.   To get his point across in Candide, Voltaire created the character Dr. Pangloss, an unconditional follower of Leibniz's philosophy. Voltaire shows this early in the novel by stating, "He proved admirably that there is no effect without a cause and that, in this best of all possible worlds....(16)" Pangloss goes on to say that everything had its purpose and things were made for the best. For example, the nose was created for the purpose of wearing spectacles (Voltaire 16). Because of his "great knowledge," Candide, at this point a very naive and impressionable youth, regards Pangloss as the greatest philosopher in the world, a reverence that will soon be contradicted by contact with reality (Frautschi 75).

Graduation Speech: Our Next Big Climb :: Graduation Speech, Commencement Address

Class of 2012, we've finally made it, but not without the help of our parents, teachers and mentors along the way. Maybe what they did for us was that they were a good rudder and we're the ship, and they got us to the sea where we remember who we are. Because we all get in that fog, where we forget who we are or what we're about, we get overwhelmed. I mean I've been there plenty of times in my life. But we're not going to remember most of our lives until the end. But we will remember certain moments. Maybe it's our first 4.0 report card, maybe it's our first 100 percent biology test, maybe it's our first homerun, our first touchdown. Whatever it may be, it will stay with us forever. Many of us have been together through elementary, middle and high school, and we have all had to work hard and remain focused to be where we are today. All change happens in a minute. Your life changes in a moment. Something triggers you and you finally make a decision and it all shifts. As years go by, y our body is going to change, your relationships are going to change, your attitude is going to change. Change is automatic, but progress is not. Our progress has brought us here tonight, and tonight will become one of those moments that we will cherish forever. I have been in the martial arts for about 12 years now, and I remembered my martial arts instructor, Mr. Charles Pearson, sitting everybody down during a black belt testing and telling us, "Earning a black belt is very much like climbing a mountain. You work hard, and eventually you'll work your way up to the top. But once you're there, your journey is not over; it simply has just begun. And you realize that there are other mountains for you to climb." As I now reflect back, I realize that school is very much the same. Our first mountain was a long, yet a fun, 12-year climb. Like all of the other unforgettable moments, this climb, in about 90 minutes or so will come to an end. We have finally reached our high school mountain top, and for a lot of us our next big climb may be to go to college. And for some of us, our next big climb may be to get a job, to travel around the world, start a new business, or even a career.

What explanations are offered for the development of nationalism?

Introduction The roots of nationalism go back to the middle of the eighteenth century and a movement called romanticism. Affecting art, journalism, philosophy, music, and politics, romanticism was a mood or a disposition that defied rigid definition. It did indicate a revolt against rationalism and a consequent emphasis on sentiment, feeling, and imagination. The emotions of the heart, it was argued, though irrational, should be valued over and above the intellectualizations of the head. So that whereas Rene Descartes had said, â€Å"I think, therefore I am,† Jean-Jacques Rousseau proclaimed, â€Å"A thinking man is a depraved animal.† In this havoc of power and ideas, one familiar face has re-emerged: that of nationalism. For many it is as undesirable as it is unbidden and unexpected. For others its recurrence is regrettable but comes as no surprise. For still others, it symbolizes the only sure way forward after the sudden shatters created by totalitarianism in the de velopmental paths of so numerous societies. For all, nationalism symbolizes a stage in the evolution of humanity to ‘higher forms' of culture, one that should be endured or embraced, but is certainly destined to pass after a few chaotic decades (Smith 1995; Brown, Micheal, 1997).None of these situations seems to accord with the chronological facts or sociological realisms of ethnicity and nationalism. Instead of treating ethnicity and nationalism as phenomenon in their own right, they persist on evaluating them by the yardstick of a liberal evolutionary scheme, overt or tacit, one that is intrinsically problematic and perceptibly irrelevant to the dynamics of nations, nationalism and ethnic conflict.For liberals and socialists dedicated to the view that humanity progresses in stages to greater units of comprehensiveness and higher values, the nation and nationalism can simply represent a halfway house to the aim of a cosmopolitan culture and a global polity. On the one hand, t he nation can be applauded for superseding all those local, inscriptive ties and communities that have controlled innovation and opportunity and enchained the human spirit.Its wider horizons have brought collectively all kinds of peoples with changeable origins, religions, occupations and class backgrounds and turned them into citizens of the defensive, civic nation. Conversely, the nation today has become an obstruction to progress, seeking ineffectively to control the flow of information and the channels of mass communication, and to obstruct and control the great economic institutions–transnational companies, world banks and trade organizations and the global financial and commodities markets.Although the great forces of globalization, economic, political and cultural, have already diluted the power of the nation-state and are fast making all national boundaries and responses obsolete (Schopfin, George, 2000; Hobsbawm 1990: ch. 6). Romanticism rejected the idea of the inde pendence of the individual and stressed identification with an external whole, with something outside of oneself. Quite normally, this outside whole took the form of nature, as marked in the works of such romanticists as Wordsworth in England; Herder, Schiller, and Goethe in Germany; and Hugo, Rousseau, and Madame de Stael in France.Frequently also, the center of one's identification was the â€Å"folk,† the cultural group, or nation. Nationalism, in other words, was a political expression of romanticism (William Booth, 1996, p. A-1). In many ways, the major philosopher of nationalism was Rousseau, whose influence on the French Revolution has been generally recognized. Rousseau's ideal was the small, well-knit community in which each person freely gave himself over, quite literally, to every other person. We should obey the community, Rousseau taught, because in observing the community we obey ourselves.The identity and unity of our wills produce a â€Å"General Will† that is completing, indivisible, infallible, and always for the common good. The individual's commitment and fondness to the community and the General Will are total. French Revolution and Nationalism Following the French Revolution, nationalism spread across the continent of Europe and beyond. In a real sense, the past of nineteenth-century Europe is the history of nationalism or as a minimum this is one way of looking at it. The twentieth century saw the dispersal of nationalism throughout the world.No country has been spared; none is an exemption. â€Å"Some Euro-enthusiasts, have hinted at the prospect of transcending the state and nation by forming a wider federation and a district political identity. Yet the federalists have been continually frustrated by the continuing vivacity of the national idea†. James Mayall, 1990, 94-5 With the exclusion of two brief periods, Western nationalism has continued unabated. For about a decade after each of the two world wars, Western nationalism was in a state of decline, even of ill reputation.It was nationalism, after all, that had set in motion cataclysmic events, leading to appalling waste of human and material resources. But the decline of Western nationalism did not last long. Its renaissance after World War I was much hastened by the fascist and the Nazi movements of the 1920s and 1930s. After the Second World War, Western nationalism owed much of its vitality to the French Gaullist movement of the 1950s and the 1960s. More about this currently. The same world wars that led to the transient decline of nationalism in the West set the stage for the rise of nationalism in the East.The â€Å"new nationalism,† as it came to be called, took place, for the most part, in colonial areas; and it was in large appraise a reaction against the Western policies of imperialism and invasion. At the turn of the century, colonial nationalism (more exactly, anticolonial nationalism) was almost an unknown phenomenon. F ollowing World War I and the disintegration of the Ottoman and the Austro-Hungarian empires, nationalism began to appear in a few countries, most notably in India.After the Second World War and the dissolution of the German, British, French, and other imperial designs, nationalism mushroomed in formerly colonial countries. Nationalism after Cold War Nationalism takes hold after the Cold war. By 1950, the philosophy of the Nationalism after Cold War had come to control public life in the United States. It was an ideology of American nationalist globalism, in which the United States was seen to be locked in global struggle with forces of international communism, proscribed by a Soviet government intent on world invasion.That struggle was believed to intimidate fundamental American values, most particularly freedom of enterprise and freedom of religion, and the leeway of spreading those values, which were deemed collective, to the rest of the world, which longed for them. Within this i deology, almost all international problems or crises were seen as part of the overarching conflict between the United States and the USSR—between their contending ideologies and ways of life. Within this framework, a threat to â€Å"freedom† anywhere in the world was deemed a risk to the American way of life.This presented a simple, dichotomous view that seemed too many if not most Americans to elucidate the often frustrating and considerably more composite developments of the postwar world. The roots of this philosophy lay in a tradition of belief about America's national mission and destiny, a ritual reaching back to the seventeenth century. Key elements of this ideology were in place at the end of World War II; some developed throughout the war, and others preceded it. The final pieces fell into place between 1945 and 1950.All through those years, the range of U. S. foreign policy discourse grew more and more narrow. Though, American nationalist ideology given the p rincipal underpinning for the broad public consent that supported Cold War foreign policy. Seen through the prism of that principles, the U. S. had emerged from World War II as a completely matured great power, dedicated to comprehending freedom all through the world and prepared to usher in a new golden age in its own image.After the war, the Soviet Union became a relentless foe because it exposed this idea of the American Century. From the late forties through the late eighties, the United States waged cold war against the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics not mainly in the name of capitalism or Western civilization (neither of which would have united the American people behind the cause), but in the name of America in the name, that is, of the nation. The potency of the Nationalism ideology that appeared between 1945 and 1950—an principles that dominated U.S. public life at least until the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991—derivative largely from its nati onalist appeal. Yet although the vast scholarly literature on the Cold War, American nationalism remains a little-studied element of postwar U. S. history. Indeed, as Stephen Vaughn noted practically twenty years ago in his study of democracy and nationalism in the propaganda work of the Committee on Public Information during World War I, twentieth-century American nationalism remains a subject deficiently in need of further study.(Vaughn, Stephen, 1980). Involvement of Soviet Empire Since the implosion first of the Soviet empire and then of the Soviet Union itself, nationalism has again affirmed itself as a force on the world scene, one not expected to fade away soon. The scholarly literature on nationalism is voluminous and seems to expand exponentially, mainly in the years since the earth-shaking events of 1989-91. The ideology around which the Cold War consent was forged from 1947 on consisted of three main constructs: national greatness, global accountability, and anticommunism .Anticommunism was the last leg of this ideological triad to fall into place. By illumination why the United States was having such a hard time meeting its global responsibilities while concurrently buttressing the nation's claims to greatness, anticommunism put the entire ideology in working order. The third leg permitted the triad to stand. But the fundamental ideology was one of American nationalist globalism, not anticommunism. In itself, anticommunism was barely new to U. S. political culture in 1947.But with the Soviet Union sitting spanning Eastern and Central Europe, global anticommunism now became a defining constituent in U. S. foreign-policy ideology as signified in public discourse. The perception that the communist threat was worldwide received momentous amplification in 1949, with the â€Å"loss† of China to Mao's army and the Soviet Union's detonation of its first atomic device (William Claiborne, Washington Post, November 24, 1996, p. A-12). Nationalism and Am erican Globalism The idea of the Soviet threat proved relevant precisely because it threatened the idea of the American Century.Global anticommunism fit impressively into the existing mixture of national greatness and global accountability, American nationalism and American globalism—as this mixture had already begun to function as an ideology of nationalist globalism that facilitated many Americans makes sense of their nation's overriding place in the postwar world. Global anticommunism lent increased force to this ideological vision. The appeal of global anticommunism—and particularly the impact of the Truman Doctrine speech of March 12, 1947 should be understood in that context.In 1947 the Truman Doctrine provoked influential debate, though it clearly carried the day. In 1950 the application of that principle to Asia provoked overwhelming support. After the accent of the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan in the first six months of 1947, and particularly after co ngressional support of the Marshall Plan in the wake of the Czech coup in February and March of 1948, the range of adequate public debate about the basic objectives of U. S. foreign policy had grown gradually more constricted.Fairly, Henry Wallace attempted to make these objectives a central question of the 1948 presidential campaign. But Wallace and the foreign-policy questions he sought to heave were painted with a red brush that left them beyond the pale of adequate public discussion. Certain basics of the civil rights and labor movements attempted to express dissent over U. S. foreign-policy initiatives in planned terms, but to do so they accepted the terms of the debate as recognized by the Truman administration's stated global objectives.In doing so, groups like the NAACP and the UAW sought to gain both government and public support to precede their own domestic agendas. While both organized labor and African Americans achieved certain objectives as a result, their acceptance of the official objectives of U. S. foreign policy put in to the narrowing of public discourse relating to both national and international issues. In late 1948 and 1949, systematic dissidents who forthrightly opposed the fundamental foreign-policy strategy of the Truman administration, such as W. E. B.Du Bois, Paul Robeson, and Henry Wallace, found themselves more insignificant than ever. The UE and other left-wing unions that divergent the Marshall Plan were debarred from the CIO, which in effect took away their status as well thought-of American trade unions. These dissenters had stepped outside the boundaries of legitimate discourse as distinct by the established notions of national greatness, global responsibility, and anticommunism. Wallace definitely preached his own principle of national greatness and global responsibility, but his failure to recognize global anticommunism nevertheless placed him beyond the pale.The lack of fundamental public debate concerning the nature and purposes of U. S. foreign policy after 1950 given to the development of an ever more militarized foreign policy controlled by narrow ideological blinders that covered fundamental international realities. â€Å"The so-called Cold War,† in the words of Joyce and Gabriel Kolko, â€Å"was far less the altercation of the United States with Russia than America's expansion into the entire world—a world the Soviet Union neither proscribed nor created. † (Everett Carll Ladd, 1995)The ideology of American nationalist globalism, which distinct international reality in terms of a Manichaean struggle between the U. S. -led â€Å"free world† and Soviet-controlled communist totalitarianism, served to validate the expansion of U. S. power all through the world while obfuscating the enormous complications of a world experiencing the final collapse of European colonialism. It facilitated most Americans to feel pride in being citizens of a great nation that required only to protect its own way of life and to defend â€Å"free peoples everywhere† from totalitarian aggression.The absence of debate about the fundamental assumptions of U. S. foreign policy throughout most of the Cold War era served to reify that ideological commencement. Nationalism has been a momentous theme of the post-Cold War era. Throughout the Cold War, Americans welcomed refugees from the Captive Nations. After the Cold War, refugees either escaping the terror of dictatorial rulers or wanting to stake their claim to the American Dream lost their cachet with voters (accept those fleeing Castro's Cuba).â€Å"The arrival of the greatest number of immigrants as the wave of eastern, central, and southern European ethnics in 1901-1910 caused anti-immigrant commitment to spread† (â€Å"Immigration,† Time/CNN, All Politics, Internet, March 25, 1996). Passions ran high in vote-rich states such as California, Florida, New Jersey, Texas, Illinois, New York, and California . Throughout the 1994 midterm elections, Californians ratified Proposition 187, which banned all state spending on illegal immigrants and requisite police to report suspected illegal to the California Department of Justice and the U.S. Immigration Service. Television sets sputtered with pictures of illegal Mexicans swarming across the border as a presenter intoned, â€Å"They just keep . † (Barone and Ujifusa,1996, p. 81). As the campaign escalated, Republicans Jack Kemp and William Bennett accused the measure, claiming it was â€Å"politically unwise and essentially at odds with the best tradition and courage of our party. † (Dick Kirschten, 1995, p. 150). Regardless of their protestations, Proposition 187 won handily, 59 percent to 41 percent.But whereas whites gave it 64 percent backing, 69 percent of Hispanics disapproved–a sharp demarcation of the new â€Å"us-versus-them† politics. (J. Joseph Huthmacher, 1969) Pete Wilson, the GOP governor who made the vote initiative a cornerstone of his reelection bid, won by an almost equal vote of 55 percent to 41 percent. Two years later, Kemp realigned his immigration stance once he was chosen by Bob Dole to be the 1996 Republican vice presidential nominee. ConclusionHowever, the role of nationalism, and particularly the nationalist symbolism of American world power, remains a derelict factor in our understanding of the Cold War's origins. As the Cold War itself recedes into history and the view that the Russians ongoing it and the Americans won it becomes ever more commonplace, it is more important than ever to observe the ways in which the United States contributed to the Cold War's origins, mainly through the universalist pretensions of its political culture.The triumphalism embedded in Francis Fukuyama's view that the end of the Cold War marked â€Å"the end of history† constitutes a new, traditionally contingent variation on the ideology that framed that conflict from the beg inning. In a world growing less rather than more pliant to the dictates of U. S. policy, such ideological thinking is potentially quite precarious. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the collapse of the Soviet Union two years later, the ideological basics of American nationalist globalism have been loosened but not undone.There is no longer a domineering consensus, because there is no longer a prime perception of a single, overarching threat to the United States. But most Americans are quite sure that their country won the Cold War and that they are citizens of the world's favored nation. As the Persian Gulf War demonstrated, national enormity and global responsibility can activate a potent public consensus behind large-scale intervention without anticommunism playing a role.Until we have a more thorough debate over the nature and purposes of our nation's foreign policy in a multifaceted rapidly changing world, we remain in danger of falling back into an ideological descr iption of international realities. If that should happen particularly if it should happen in combination with declining U. S. global domination, domestic economic travails, and the determination of awesome U. S. military power, it could pose a grave new threat itself, both to the wellbeing of the republic and to the wellbeing of the world. References: â€Å"Immigration,† Time/CNN, All Politics, Internet, March 25, 1996. Barone and Ujifusa, â€Å"The Almanac of American Politics†, 1996, p. 81. Brown, Micheal E., Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict (MIT:1997); Dick Kirschten, â€Å"Second Thoughts,† National Journal, January 21, 1995, p. 150. Everett Carll Ladd, America at the Polls, 1994 ( Storrs, Connecticut: Roper Center for Public Opinion Research, 1995), p. 124. Hobsbawm, E.J., Nations and Nationalism since 1780 (Cambridge:1992); J. Joseph Huthmacher, Massachusetts: People and Politics, 1919-1933 ( New York: Atheneum, 1969), p. 162. Mayall, James, Nationalism and International Society (Cambridge,1990); Schopfin, George, Nations, Identity, Power: The New Politics of Europe (Hurst, 2000) Smith, A., Nations and Nationalism in a Global Era (1995) Vaughn, Stephen. Holding Fast the Inner Lines: Democracy, Nationalism, and the Committee on Public Information. Chapel Hill, N.C., 1980 William Booth, â€Å"In a Rush, New Citizens Register Their Political Interest,† Washington Post, September 26, 1996, p. A-1. William Claiborne, â€Å"Democrats Don't Have Lock on Hispanic Vote, Latino Leaders Say,† Washington Post, November 24, 1996, p. A-12.

Main thrends in phonemic theory Essay

Methods of Phonological Analysis. The Main Trends in the Phoneme Theory It is generally acknowledged that the phoneme is one of the basic language units. However, it is described by different scholars and representatives of different linguistic schools in different ways. Before we look at the most significant theories, lets say a quick word on the history of phonological studies and mention the names of outstanding scholars who contributed to the understanding of this complicated language phenomenon. In the 1960s there appeared the so-called new phonology which was aimed at explaining how speech is actually produced and understood by the humans. Generative phonology represented by a well-known American linguist N.Chomsky viewed phonology in close connection with syntax and semantics. The ideas of generative phonology were represented in the book by Chomsky and M.Halle The Sound Pattern of English. Classical static phonological models were aimed at creating classifications of the sound system of a particular language. Dynamic models were aimed at establishing the sound pattern of an utterance on the basis of its semantic and grammar characteristics. Now lets try to group these schools into bigger categories and see what is the main criterion in the approach of linguists to the phoneme. In fact, the main criterion is three aspects of the phoneme. Some linguists exaggerate the abstract aspect of the phoneme and ignore the material aspect. Others, on the contrary, pay more attention to the material aspect and ignore the abstract one. We must admit that no theories ignore the functional aspect. I. Conceptions that pay special attention to the abstract aspect. According to mentalistic and psychological view, the phoneme is an ideal mental image, it doesnt exist objectively, it exists only in the mind of the speaker. Actual speech sounds are imperfect realization of it. These ideals were expressed by Baudauin de Courtenay and by Sommerfelt. II.   Conception that can be called functional because special focus is given to the ability of the phoneme to differentiate the meaning. III. The group concerned with the material aspect. The physical view represented by Daniel Jones and B.Bloch regards the phoneme as the family of related sounds. In other words the phoneme is a mechanical sum of its allophones. So, similarity between sounds is considered to be the main criterion for attributing them to a particular phoneme. We see that the representatives of this approach ignore the abstract and functional aspect of the phoneme. 1) to establish distinctive  difference between sounds, that is to establish relevant features 2) to create the inventory of the phonemes and establish the phonemic system of a language.